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Experiment: “Pavlow’s Dog” – This is How Behavior and Fears Are Learned

“Pawlov’s dog” is an experiment by the physiologist and physician Ivan Pavlov, who coined the term classical conditioning, which is still important in psychology today.

Short biography: This is what you need to know about Ivan Pavlov

The Russian physician and physiologist Ivan Petrovich Pavlov was born in 1849. He then spent his life and his school days in his birthplace Ryazan. He particularly appreciates being able to pay attention to his personal interests.

Influenced by contemporary thinkers and scientists, his interest turned to natural science. In order to expand his knowledge, he first studied at the University of St. Petersburg, then became a professor at the Imperial Military Medical Academy. In 1883 Pavlov received his doctorate in natural sciences.

His research was very diverse. He made remarkable advances in the physiology of the heart, nervous and digestive systems. He achieved a major breakthrough primarily through his behavioral research: he was of the opinion that all human behavior depended on reflexes. He examined this thesis in the famous “Pavlovian dog” experiment, which subsequently helped to mature his theory of classical conditioning.

Pavlov’s Dog: Pavlov’s Breakthrough

Pavlov’s study began by examining the digestive processes in dogs. However, his interest soon turned to the dog’s salivary reflex: from 1889 he focused on observing how the salivary reflex can be conditioned.

Most people know that the animal secretes saliva and gastric juice at the sight of the food. During his previous experiments, however, Pavlov noticed that the salivation would start as soon as the animal heard its footsteps. He suspected this was because it already associated the sound of footsteps with the food. This signal was habitually and firmly coupled with the increase in food, so that the saliva began to flow even then.

He called the automatic salivation that begins when the dog sees or smells the food the unconditional or unconditioned reflex. This reaction is quite natural and compulsive; it therefore requires no additional stimulus. The food itself acts as an unconditioned stimulus or unconditioned stimulus.

The conditioned or conditioned reflex

The conditional or conditioned reflex, on the other hand, means a coupling of a new stimulus or stimulus with the same reaction: the reaction is “learned”. Each time before the dog received his food, he rang a bell. After a few runs, it was observed that the dog’s salivation as a conditioned reflex started as soon as the bell sounded.

The principle can also be easily visualized:
beginning of the experiment
Food (unconditioned stimulus) => response (salivation, unconditioned response)
Ringing of the bell (neutral stimulus) => no response
After conditioning
ringing the bell (conditioned stimulus) => response (salivation, conditioned response)

Pavlov’s insights

The principle of conditioning that Pavlov found in the dog meant that he transferred this phenomenon to human behavior as well: not only animal, but also human behavior was to be made more understandable through the experiment. Conditioning is a very important basis, especially for understanding and developing learning processes.

The discovery that even neutral stimuli could be coupled to produce a conditioned response was revolutionary. The basis of the stimulus-response theory is the innate, unconditioned behavior. However, a certain contiguity of the stimuli is also required here: conditioning can only occur if they are close to each other in time. If a longer time interval elapses between a neutral stimulus and the unconditioned reaction, it is difficult or impossible to link them. According to Pavlov’s experiment, stable and sustained conditioning is only possible if the neutral stimulus occurs before the conditioned stimulus during the process.

Example: first bell ringing (neutral stimulus), then food (unconditioned stimulus) -> reaction (salivation, unconditioned response). The phenomenon of extinction was also remarkable for Pavlov: if a reaction was conditioned, this does not automatically mean that it will continue in the long run. Extinction means a kind of “erasure” of the conditioned stimulus-response behavior: If the neutral stimulus is not coupled to the unconditioned stimulus from time to time, the conditioned response no longer takes place either. So if he rang the bell at a few intervals without providing food afterwards, the salivation also stopped as a conditioned response. Using the generalization, Pavlov described the phenomenon that occurred when he rang other bells: when the dog heard a stimulus that was similar to the neutral stimulus, the conditioned response also occurred. So the stimuli were generalized by the dog to elicit the same response.

The meaning of the experiment

The Pavlovian dog experiment is well known today and of great importance for psychology. The findings can be easily transferred to human behavior: behavioral disorders or human fear reactions in particular can often be explained very well using the model of classical conditioning.

An example can illustrate this: John B. Watson, an American psychologist, attempted to condition an anxiety response in an 11-month-old boy. Also known as the Little Albert Experiment, the experiment was conducted in 1920. The child was shown a white mouse which, being a neutral stimulus, initially did not elicit a response. The psychologist then combined the pointing of the mouse with a subsequent loud crack as an unconditioned stimulus, which elicited startle and crying in the boy as an unconditioned response. After some repetition, the conditioning was so firmly entrenched that generalization took place: when the boy was older, he showed a fear of many different types of furry animals, and sometimes even of men with beards.

Uwe Wawrinowski described in his book The Observational Theory that it is also possible to bring about desired or undesired behavior in people with the help of classical conditioning. As a pedagogical method, he concluded that desirable behavior should be associated with a rewarding, enjoyable response. Conversely, unwanted behavior can be prevented by linking it to an unpleasant event or a ban.

Conclusion

The fact that the experiment is based on the reactions of dogs leaves open the question to what extent the results can be extrapolated to humans at all. The main criticism here is that the complexity of the human brain and all thought processes are not represented at all or only in a very simplified manner. In addition, conditioning carries with it a danger: educators or other authority figures could abuse the principle to their benefit.

A milestone for psychology was laid with Pavlov’s findings. Many other learning theories, fear explanation theories or behavioral explanations are based on the basic concept of classical conditioning.

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Hops For The Hair? This is How Beer Makes Your Hairstyle Shiny and Voluminous

Would you like a beer shower? Many will probably advise against it. In this case, it is a real insider tip when it comes to hair care. Here’s how good hops actually are for your hair.

While many shampoos use barley juice to give your hair that extra kick, beer works just as well. This is mainly due to the vitamin B contained in beer and the so-called pantothenic acid. These two ingredients make the hair soft and gentle. The hops also provide more volume.

The special beer shower is easy to use, just like any other conditioner: simply work the beer into your hair over the bathtub and leave it on for a while. Then it can simply be washed out. If you want more strength in your hair, you should avoid rinsing it out. The malt in the beer gives the hair more structure. And don’t worry about the smell of beer: it goes away faster than you think.

hops for the hair? – that’s better than you might think

Another secret trick is to work the beer into your hair like a tincture: Simply mix 50 milliliters of beer with egg yolk and, if necessary, with a small amount of conventional shampoo. Irritated scalp also benefits from honey, which can be added.

Then simply massage in and leave on for 10 to 15 minutes. Then rinse very well afterwards. The shiny head of hair is ready!

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Do Pizza Boxes and Handkerchiefs Belong in The Waste Paper? This Can Be Disposed of in The Paper Bin

Handkerchiefs, pizza boxes, books: can all of that really go in the paper bin? inFranken.de explains popular recycling mistakes – and lists what really can go in the waste paper.

Separating paper waste correctly: This is how you know what can go in the waste paper

Since some types of paper are coated, not all types are equally suitable for waste paper. In general, coated types of paper are not allowed in the waste paper bin. The “tear test” can be used to determine whether the paper is coated. The product is torn and observed to see whether a wafer-thin film can be seen at the tear. If this is the case, the material is coated. However, if fibers can be seen during the tear test, the paper is not coated and it can be recycled – i.e. put in the waste paper bin.

Paper waste is usually collected in paper bins but also at recycling centers. The waste is then taken to a sorting facility where, for example, cardboard is separated from mixed paper. In order to recycle the material, it is dissolved and shredded. The resulting pulp is then dewatered, dried and rolled out into paper webs. Then new products can be made.

For example, new newspaper, office paper, toilet paper and cardboard can be made from the recycled paper.

It really should go in the paper bin

There are a number of paper products that can usually be disposed of in the waste paper bin without any problems.

The following list of permitted waste for the waste paper bin should be clarified with the respective municipality if anything is unclear.
newspapers
magazines
catalogues
Books
brochures
writing paper
cardboard boxes
cardboard
paper packaging
shoe boxes

That doesn’t belong in the paper bin

However, there are also products that contain paper that should never end up in the paper bin. Many people make the mistake of throwing them in the bin.

In any case, soiled paper, coated material or lightweight packaging must not go into the waste paper bin.
Dirty paper
pizza boxes
sticker
labels
carbon and carbon paper
photos
beverage cartons
handkerchiefs
toilet paper
Glued paper and cardboard
napkins
wallpapers
wax paper

Where can I get a waste paper bin from?

In some regions, the price of the bin is already included in the fees for the residual waste container. In many cities or districts, you can already apply for the bins using an online form. Otherwise, you can usually find the right contact person for waste disposal in your municipality. When it comes to volume, you can often choose between a few sizes, depending on how much waste is generated. If the waste container is not sufficient, there is the possibility to take your waste to a recycling center. Do not put your extra boxes or papers next to the bin as this may result in a fine.

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Warning to Dog Owners: This Toad Can Fatally Poison Your Dog

The cane toad originally comes from South and Central America. It is now spreading to other countries and often endangers dogs.

What makes the animal so dangerous for dogs?

In the 1930s, Australian farmers imported the animals to fight sugar cane beetles on the plantations. But the animals didn’t eat the beetles at all. Because the insects stayed in the tops of the cane, the toads couldn’t get to them. Instead, the animals ate snakes, birds and rats. The cane toad multiplies incessantly and gradually displaced native animal species. A female toad can lay up to 35,000 eggs. There are now several million toads in Australia alone. In the meantime even crocodiles fall victim to the toad. However, this is due to the extremely toxic secretion that the animals secrete.

Animal venom is a defense mechanism. The cane toad secretes it through its parotid glands when threatened. If dogs or cats mistake the animal for a toy and put it in their mouths or lick it, this can even be fatal. The four-legged friends can die within 15 minutes. Numerous animals have already died from the toad’s poison.

The voracious giant toads feel particularly at home in wet areas. Anyone who lives near streams, ponds or rivers should therefore be careful and prefer to walk the dog on a leash. Care should also be taken in the garden, as many cane toads settle there. It is still questionable how much the toads will spread and how their population can be contained.

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Can Animals Mourn? This is How They React to a Death

Do animals feel grief when they die? What is certain is that they behave differently. This is how animal grief differs from human grief.

That’s how people mourn

What is grief anyway? By definition, grief is emotional pain over a loss or misfortune. One also speaks of an individual and internal process. Mourning people are in a state of emergency. They withdraw, are not very active and hardly react to positive things.

The grieving process varies from person to person. Some people don’t want to face the fact, the misfortune. Others cry and scream, behaving as they did in the earliest phase of their lives.

Mourners are overwhelmed by a feeling of pain, which can also lead to health consequences such as migraines, dizziness, heart palpitations, back pain or faster aging. Some of the symptoms can probably be traced back to a changed hormone balance and the high energy expenditure.

Animals also behave differently after a death

Whether this grief, as we know it from humans, is also widespread among animals is still a matter of debate among researchers. Researchers have observed how animals deal with the loss of a companion. Behavior resembling mourning was noted in six whale species. Orca mothers continued to carry the dead cub’s body on their backs or in their mouths for days. Some have even brought it to the surface of the water.

Similar behavior has also been observed in other intelligent animals. In 2008, a group of chimpanzees were observed at a UK safari park petting a deceased chimpanzee and attempting to rouse it. Elephants keep coming back to the dead herd member for days.

However, other animals such as crows surround the dead conspecifics. Most likely, they only do this to inspect his dead body for the cause of death – out of self-defense. So, is the behavior of the animals really sadness or just self-interest? Maybe the herd animals just have to deal with the fact that they are alone now. Researchers do not agree on this question.

Is grief in animals the same as in humans?

Feelings of grief occur, if at all, when the animals were closely related or had lived together for a long time. The loss of a group member triggers the release of stress hormones in some animals. Because death is accompanied by a loss of security. If a leader dies, the herd of elephants can separate. If the partner dies in wild geese, it is also possible here that the remaining goose loses its place in the flock.

So do animals only feel sadness when their fellow species dies? The example of a female gorilla shows something else: In a zoo, the female gorilla had a pet cat. For weeks after the cat was hit by a car, the female gorilla shared with her carers the signs she had previously learned for sadness and crying.

Even though these signs indicate that animals mourn too, the majority of researchers agree that animals cannot feel compassion. The grief we are talking about is a human concept. After all, one can only observe the behavior of the animals, but not measure their feelings.

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Food

Arsenic Rice: This Cooking Method Eliminates the Toxin

The terrible news just went through the media: whole grain and long grain rice are said to cause cancer. Rice contains arsenic, a carcinogenic substance that does not completely disappear even during cooking. Professor Andy Meharg has now tested which cooking method is most effective in eliminating arsenic from rice.

Rice contaminated with arsenic

Rice is one of the most common side dishes and is considered healthy. Unfortunately, the healthy grain also contains pollutants such as arsenic. “Öko-Test” just reported the shocking results: long-grain and whole-grain rice are so heavily contaminated with pollutants and carcinogenic substances that the consumption of these types of rice is even completely discouraged.

The rice plants absorb these substances through contaminated groundwater. Especially with whole grain and parboiled rice, the load of toxins is higher, since the outer shell of the rice grain is still attached, or the harmful substances from it have passed into the interior of the grain.

“Oko-Test” and Professor Andy Meharg therefore always recommend basmati rice: This is the least contaminated.

Cook rice properly

Queens University Belfast professor Andy Meharg has researched the best way to cook rice. He examined various cooking and preparation methods and to what extent these changed the arsenic content in food.

In the first variant, the scientist boiled the rice in about twice the amount of water. This is one of the most popular ways to cook rice. But the arsenic content was only reduced by 16 percent.

The second attempt: cook rice with five times the amount of water. Here, the arsenic content has already been reduced by 50 percent – although this value is still alarmingly high.

The third method was actually the most successful: Mehard was able to reduce the proportion of the toxin to just 16 percent. To do this, the rice must be soaked in water overnight and then washed in a sieve under running water until the water runs clear before preparation. Five times the amount of water is then added to the pot to boil.

The three rules for cooking rice:

  1. Soak rice.
  2. Always wash rice!
  3. Boil rice in five times the amount of water.
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Lifestyle

Love: This is How Our Body Decides who We Fall in Love With

The body decides who I fall in love with, not the heart. Love is born in the mind. Biology knows which criteria are decisive for falling in love.

This is what happens in our body when we fall in love

What is love? A poet will give a different answer to this question than a biologist. The sober answer from a scientific point of view can take away the romantic illusions of a magical love for many newly in love: Love is a feeling with a biochemical basis and a neurobiological pattern that simplify or even enable the start of a relationship. Above all, love serves a higher mating success. An increased heartbeat, moist skin and hands, cheeks with good blood flow – anyone who has ever been in love knows these symptoms only too well. But what exactly triggers the infatuation signs in our body?

Even if the heart can pound at the sight of the swarm, infatuation does not develop in the heart, but in the brain. There, the lymbic reward system is particularly active during this time, while the prefrontal cortex, which is responsible for rational thinking, is particularly inactive. The body releases a lot of dopamine. Some people in love have higher serotonin levels. Both are happiness hormones that make the world look a lot nicer. Testosterone levels in women go up and men go down. Decisions are now made via different neural pathways than before.

It is not always possible to prove exactly why the individual values ​​are falling or rising. But one thing is clear: something is happening in the body! In their thinking, people in love are even similar to people with OCD. However, this only applies to the first phase. After about a year, the intoxication wears off, and bonding and security hormones such as oxytocin and vasopressin replace dopamine. Researchers speak of the so-called Coolidge effect. However, if the two partners are compatible, the exciting infatuation turns into love.

Who do we fall in love with?

We know countless people, with some we are friends, with others we can imagine more. What actually determines who we fall in love with? The first thought that probably comes to many people’s minds is a mixture of looks, character and interests. In fact, various scientific studies have shown that appearance is the first criterion when choosing a partner, especially for men. But that is not how it remains.

If you ask psychologists, the choice is mainly about similarities. Here, for example, age plays a role, but also a similar level of education and a common social milieu. On average, men are two to three years older than women in relationships. A similar milieu creates opportunities for encounters, many people get to know each other at work and at school. Common interests and similar characteristics evoke sympathy in people. But biology thinks differently: it is precisely differences that attract.

The more different two people’s genes are, the more attractive they find each other. This has one purpose above all: to protect the offspring from diseases. In general, from an evolutionary biological point of view, choosing a partner is about sexual reproduction. The genetic material should be combined in such a way that it results in the best conditions for potential children. This is where a surprising fact comes into play: smell is key. Everyone has an individual scent that we subconsciously perceive. This scent signals to the other person whether it is a potential reproductive partner or not.

Partners are like your own parents – is that true?

A mixture of appearance, character and interests – so it’s not quite that simple after all. But while smell is an essential factor in who we fall in love with, looks play a different role. 80 percent choose partners who look a bit like their parents. Is it true that we fall in love with people who resemble our parents?

There’s something to it. At least that’s what the results of a Hungarian study say. For the study, the researchers measured face sections of several people per family. When comparing the measurements, it became apparent that daughters tend to favor men whose central facial area resembles that of their father. For sons, the lower part of the mother’s face was significant. In total, the faces of 312 people were measured.

The researchers attribute this fact to the socialization process of the children. And in principle, familiar faces are more sympathetic to people than strangers. Couple therapists know that resemblance isn’t just limited to looks. The same often applies to character traits and behavioral characteristics. In addition, the actual influence of this factor also depends on how good or bad the parent-child relationship is.

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Driving When There is a Storm Warning? Drivers Should Be Aware of This

Driving in a storm requires maximum attention, especially when driving. What dangers can you encounter?

Tips for drivers

If you are out and about in a storm, you should be particularly careful. It is important that you have both hands on the steering wheel so that you can react quickly and safely. However, you should avoid strong steering movements against the wind, because if the airflow stops quickly, you could end up in the oncoming lane, for example. Pay attention to where the wind is coming from. You can see this, for example, in the sloping trees or in the air sacs on bridges.

Drive slower than usual during a storm; the faster you go, the more you can lose control of your vehicle in strong winds. You can also increase safety by increasing the distance between vehicles, for example in the event of unexpected sudden braking due to an obstacle.

Also, be aware of where you are riding and whether your surroundings are about to change; for example on bridges or when you drive out of a tunnel, the wind will (again) push harder against your car. The following applies: Additional items such as roof boxes, bicycles or trailers offer the wind more surface to attack. For this reason you should not necessarily overtake buses and trucks; as soon as you drive out of their slipstream, you can be hit by strong gusts.

You should not underestimate unexpected obstacles and the reactions of other drivers that come with them: Sudden (heavy) rain and debris can appear suddenly. Falling bricks and branches or falling trees pose a great risk of property damage and personal injury. You should therefore avoid routes with many trees, bridges and underpasses if possible.

Tip: If the danger on the road becomes too great, you can visit a rest area. Here, too, you should pay attention to safety and choose a parking space where you are not endangered by falling branches, for example.

Insurance – What to do if something happens?

It is important to avoid unnecessary trips during a storm and not to allow damage to occur in the first place. If this is unavoidable or if the parked car is damaged, a look at the insurance documents will help. In general, insurance companies take over damage from a wind force of 8. Which insurance pays in the event of damage depends on the circumstances of the damage: Residential building, natural hazards, liability, comprehensive or household contents insurance. Then it depends on whether you have partial or fully comprehensive insurance. If possible, you should record the damage, for example via a (mobile) photo. It is also important to prevent further damage, for example by masking a broken window.

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Preparing For Death: You Should Definitely Pay Attention to This

Everything that lives must die. But how can you prepare for the inevitable?

What is to be settled?

With every second that passes, the moment of death draws nearer. You suppress it, don’t want to admit it. And yet it is inevitable. Perhaps a visit to the doctor will make you realize the fact that your lifetime is coming to an end. At least now you will realize that life is finite. But can you really prepare for your death?

First of all, it is important to regulate certain things. What happens after death? Is everything settled? Here is a 7-point plan:
Store documents clearly: insurance policies, family book, bank documents and also a list of passwords for online banking, social networks or other online accounts.
Make a will: notary public or handwritten. If handwritten, this should be placed with the documents or officially stored.
Appoint an executor: This means a person who implements the will.
State your funeral preferences: How would you like to be buried?
Declare Pet Inheritance: If you have a pet, who should take care of it after death?
Bequeath objects during your lifetime: It is best to decide who should get what in a discussion group.

The last will

You don’t think about it when you’re young. But when you die, you leave something behind. This often leads to arguments. A will can help with that. It may make sense to write it earlier in life. There are a few things to keep in mind. First of all, it does not necessarily have to be written by a notary, you can write it yourself. But you have to follow certain rules here. And what are the advantages and disadvantages?

The handwritten will
can be written alone. No other person is necessary.
can be written anytime, anywhere. It will not be charged.
can be kept at home or kept at the district court (approx. €75.00).
can be changed, destroyed or revoked at any time.
may be unclear or even invalid because it was written by a layperson.
can be lost, not found or counterfeited.

The notarial will:
Legal advice and legally secure preparation by a notary.
An appointment with the notary is necessary.
The document is officially stored.
A change can be made by a notary. A revocation occurs through withdrawal from official custody.
There are notary fees for the creation and modification.
Official custody ensures that the will is found and not forged.
Married couples can draw up a joint will for inheritance.
Most often, couples with children choose the so-called Berlin will: According to this, the longer surviving inherited everything. Only after his death do the children inherit.
If the testator is very wealthy, the Berlin will can have tax disadvantages.

How do you prepare yourself for death?

But how can you mentally adjust to death? It doesn’t matter if you got a message about the approaching end.

Accept that you will die. It’s useless to quarrel with fate. You may think it’s unfair, especially when you get the news that you may not have much longer to live. You must come to the realization that everyone dies. Ultimately, there is nothing unfair about that.
Use your time. Think about what you really want. Go to places you want to see, meet people you love. Is it really important to work even more overtime just to buy yourself things you don’t need?
Eliminate misunderstandings. Remember, this may be the last time you’ll see someone. Forgive all those who have wronged you. Ask forgiveness from anyone you may have hurt.
enjoy It can always be the last meal, the last coffee, the last whiskey. Experience it consciously.
When you lie down to sleep, know that you may not wake up the next morning. reflect on your day. were you happy with it Close your eyes, breathe consciously. Smell, feel the linens, listen to the sounds of the night. And when you wake up, be happy about it. Don’t think about what awaits you that day. Imagine you are born again. take the moment
The world you wake up in will not last forever. Enjoy her. In everything she has to offer you. If you buy a new book, read it consciously. A new pen? It may be that today is the last time you will use it. Appreciate the people and things around you. Everything is impermanent.
Death comes to us all. We can’t stop it, but we can influence whether it frightens us or is ultimately what it’s supposed to be: the end of a life.

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Cleaning Windows: With This Unusual Means, Your Windows Will Be Clean

Cleaning windows with window cleaning agent – anyone can do that. We reveal the trick how detergent ensures streak-free windows and white window frames.

Clean with detergent – this is how it works

Yes, you heard me right. Detergent not only makes the laundry shine clean again. Fabric softener is a real miracle cure for streak-free windows. To do this, simply fill the cap of the packaging with fabric softener and mix the amount with three liters of water. The windows are then cleaned with this liquid in the usual routine. This not only makes the windows shine. The ingredients in the fabric softener also ensure that rainwater rolls off the window glass. Who knows, maybe you won’t have to clean as often afterwards.

Fabric softener for streak-free windows – that’s not all. Because with detergent you can also get the window frames clean. This time we’ll use the washing powder that everyone probably has at home. This also saves you the trip to the shop if the actual window cleaning agent is empty. Detergent powder is particularly suitable for white window frames that can no longer be cleaned properly with normal cleaning.

The procedure is simple: moisten a cloth slightly and put a small amount of the white washing powder on it. The window frame can then be cleaned with it. Isn’t that enough? Then simply repeat the process again. The bleaching content of the powder not only ensures white laundry: after use, the frame will shine in wonderful white again, which makes you want spring.

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